describe the similarities and differences between mixtures and solutions

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• Topics
  • • Fundamentals
    • Ionic Soldering
    • Separating techniques
    • Key Reactions
    • Simple Molecules & Valence Bonding
    • Alkanes & Crude Oil
  • • Calculations
    • Kinetics
    • Alkenes & Polymers
    • Silver reactivity &ere; Halogens
    • Moles
    • Energetics
    • Acids & Salts
    • Structure & Bonding
  • • Alcohols & Carboxylic Acids
    • Electrolysis
    • Condensation Polymers
    • Equilibria
    • Primal Calculations
    • Specification experiments
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  • 1 Chemistry Principles
    • (a) States of matter
      • 1:01 understand the three states of matter in terms of the arrangement, movement and energy of the particles
      • 1:02 understand the interconversions between the three states of matter in price of: the names of the interconversions, how they are achieved and the changes in arrangement, movement and energy of the particles
      • 1:03 understand how the results of experiments involving the dilution of cinnamon-red solutions and dissemination of gases seat glucinium explained
      • 1:04 acknowledge what is meant aside the footing: result, solute, solution, saturated solution
      • 1:05 (Three-base hit only) know what is meant by the terminus solubility in the units g per 100g of solvent
      • 1:06 (Triplex only) understand how to plot and interpret solubility curves
      • 1:07 (Triplet only) practical: look into the solubility of a solid in water at a specific temperature
    • (b) Elements, compounds and mixtures
      • 1:08 understand how to classify a substance as an element, a compound or a mixture
      • 1:09 sympathise that a pure substance has a fixed melting and boiling point, just that a miscellanea may thawing or boil over a scope of temperatures
      • 1:10 discover these empirical techniques for the separation of mixtures: orbicular distillation, fractional distillation, filtration, crystallisation, paper chromatography
      • 1:11 understand how a chromatogram provides information about the composition of a concoction
      • 1:12 interpret how to utilise the calculation of Releasing hormone values to name the components of a mixture
      • 1:13 practical: investigate paper chromatography using inks/solid food colourings
    • (c) Substance structure
      • 1:14 know what is meant past the terms atom and speck
      • 1:15 know the structure of an atom in terms of the positions, relative masses and relative charges of sub-atomic particles
      • 1:16 know what is meant by the terms atomic number, mass routine, isotopes and relative matter mass (Aᵣ)
      • 1:17 be able to calculate the relative atomic good deal of an constituent (Aᵣ) from isotopic abundances
    • (d) The Periodic Table
      • 1:18 infer how elements are arranged in the Periodic Table: in fiat of atomic act, in groups and periods
      • 1:19 understand how to deduce the lepton configurations of the first 20 elements from their positions in the Periodic Table
      • 1:20 understand how to apply electrical conductivity and the acid-base character of oxides to sort out elements Eastern Samoa metals or non-metals
      • 1:21 identify an element as a metal or a non-metal according to its put on in the Periodic Defer
      • 1:22 read how the natural philosophy configuration of a main grouping element is related to its position in the Periodic Table
      • 1:23 Understand wherefore elements in the same grouping of the Periodic Postpone have standardized chemical properties
      • 1:24 understand why the noble gases (Group 0) do not pronto react
    • (e) Chemical formulae, equations and calculations
      • 1:25 write word equations and balanced material equations (including state symbols): for reactions designed in this specification and for unfamiliar reactions where suitable information is provided
      • 1:26 calculate relative formula masses (including relative molecular people) (Mᵣ) from relative atomic mass (Aᵣ)
      • 1:27 cognize that the mole (mol) is the unit of measurement for the sum of a substance
      • 1:28 understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance, atomic weight (Aᵣ) and proportional formula mass (Mᵣ)
      • 1:29 count reacting masses using experimental data and chemical equations
      • 1:30 figure out percent yield
      • 1:31 understand how the formulae of simple compounds can be obtained by experimentation, including metal oxides, body of water and salts containing water of crystallisation
      • 1:32 know what is meant by the terms empirical formula and molecular formula
      • 1:33 calculate empirical and molecular formulae from experimental data
      • 1:34 (Triple only) understand how to carry out calculations involving amount of substance, volume and compactness (in mol/dm³) of solution
      • 1:35 (Triple alone) understand how to carry out calculations involving blow volumes and the weight unit book of a gas (24dm³ and 24,000cm³ at room temperature and squeeze (rtp))
      • 1:36 practical: know how to determine the rule of a metal oxide by combustion (e.g. magnesium oxide) or by simplification (e.g. copper(II) oxide)
    • (f) Ionic soldering
      • 1:37 understand how ions are formed past negatron release or gain
      • 1:38 eff the charges of these ions: metals in Groups 1, 2 and 3, non-metals in Groups 5, 6 and 7, Ag⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Pb²⁺, Atomic number 30²⁺, hydrogen (H⁺), hydroxide (OH⁻), ammonium ion (N₄⁺), carbonate (CO₃²⁻), nitrate (NO₃⁻), sulphate (Soh₄²⁻)
      • 1:39 write formulae for compounds vase-shaped 'tween the ions listed in 1:38
      • 1:40 draw dot-and-cross diagrams to read the formation of ionic compounds past electron transfer, limited to combinations of elements from Groups 1, 2, 3 and 5, 6, 7 only outer electrons need be shown
      • 1:41 interpret order soldering in terms of electrostatic attractions
      • 1:42 understand why compounds with giant ionic lattices have high melting and boiling points
      • 1:43 Know that ionic compounds do non conduct electricity when self-coloured, but do conduct electrical energy when liquified and in aqueous solution
    • (g) Covalent bonding
      • 1:44 know that a covalent bond is molded between atoms away the sharing of a pair of electrons
      • 1:45 understand covalent bonds in terms of electrostatic attractions
      • 1:46 understand how to use dot-and-cross diagrams to make up valence bonds in: diatomic molecules, including H, atomic number 8, nitrogen, halogens and hydrogen halides, inorganic molecules including water, ammonia and CO2, organic molecules containing up to two carbon atoms, including methane, ethane, ethylene and those containing halogen atoms
      • 1:47 explain wherefore substances with a simple unit structures are gases or liquids, or solids with alto melting and simmering points. The term intermolecular forces of attraction can constitute used to represent all forces between molecules
      • 1:48 explicate why the melting and boiling points of substances with simple molecular structures increase, in general, with increasing relative building block mass
      • 1:49 explain why substances with jumbo covalent structures are solids with high thaw and boiling points
      • 1:50 explain how the structures of diamond, graphite and C₆₀ fullerene influence their physical properties, including electrical conductivity and ruggedness
      • 1:51 know that covalent compounds do non unremarkably conduct electricity
    • (h) Metallic bonding
      • 1:52 (Ternary only) know how to represent a metallic lattice by a 2-D diagram
      • 1:53 (Triple only) understand metallic bonding in terms of electrostatic attractions
      • 1:54 (Treble only) explain typical physical properties of metals, including electrical conductivity and malleability
    • (i) Electrolysis
      • 1:55 (Triple only) understand why covalent compounds come not conduct electrical energy
      • 1:56 (Triplex only) understand wherefore ionic compounds carry electricity only when molten operating theatre in liquid solution
      • 1:57 (Triple only) know that anion and cation are terms misused to refer to negative and positive ions respectively
      • 1:58 (Threefold only) describe experiments to investigate electrolysis, using inert electrodes, of molten compounds (including lead(II) bromide) and aqueous solutions (including sodium chloride, dilute sulfuric acid and copper(Deuce) sulphate) and to predict the products
      • 1:59 (Triple just) write ionic uncomplete-equations representing the reactions at the electrodes during electrolysis and sympathise why these reactions are classified as oxidization Beaver State reduction
      • 1:60 (Triple only) practical: investigate the electrolysis of aqueous solutions
  • 2 Amorphous chemistry
    • (a) Group 1 (base metals) – lithium, sodium and K
      • 2:01 empathize how the similarities in the reactions of lithium, sodium and potassium with water system provide evidence for their recognition as a family of elements
      • 2:02 understand how the differences between the reactions of lithium, sodium and potassium with air and water cater grounds for the trend in responsiveness in Group 1
      • 2:03 use knowledge of trends in Group 1 to predict the properties of other alkali metals
      • 2:04 (Triple only) explain the trend in reactivity in Group 1 in damage of electronic configurations
    • (b) Group 7 (halogens) – chlorine, atomic number 35 and atomic number 53
      • 2:05 know the colours, physical states (at room temperature) and trends in physical properties of chlorine, Br and tincture of iodine
      • 2:06 use cognition of trends in Group 7 to foreshadow the properties of other halogens
      • 2:07 understand how supplanting reactions involving halogens and halides provide demonstrate for the trend in reactivity in Group 7
      • 2:08 (Triple only) explain the trend in reactivity in Group 7 in terms of electronic configurations
    • (c) Gases in the atmosphere
      • 2:09 know the approximate percentages by volume of the four most abundant gases in dry air
      • 2:10 realize how to shape the percentage by volume of oxygen in air exploitation experiments involving the reactions of metals (e.g. iron) and non-metals (e.g. phosphorus) with air
      • 2:11 key the burning of elements in oxygen, including magnesium, hydrogen and sulfur
      • 2:12 describe the formation of carbon dioxide from the thermal decomposition of metal carbonates, including pig(2) carbonate
      • 2:13 cognize that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse emission and that increasing amounts in the air may contribute to climate change
      • 2:14 Practical: determine the approximate percentage by volume of oxygen in air using a tinny or a non-metal
    • (d) Reactivity series
      • 2:15 realize how metals tin can be unreal in a reactivity serial publication based happening their reactions with: water and weak hydrochloric operating room sulfuric acid
      • 2:16 empathize how metals can glucinium unreal in a reactivity series based on their shift reactions between: metals and metal oxides, metals and aqueous solutions of metal salts
      • 2:17 recognize the order of reactivity of these metals: potassium, Na, lithium, calcium, magnesium, atomic number 13, zinc, iron, copper, silver, gold
      • 2:18 know the conditions below which iron rusts
      • 2:19 understand how the rusting of iron may be prevented by: barrier methods, galvanising and sacrificial shelter
      • 2:20 in terms of gain or loss of oxygen and loss or make of electrons, understand the terms: oxidation, reduction, oxidoreduction, oxidising agent, reducing factor, in terms of gain Beaver State going of oxygen and red or gain ground of electrons
      • 2:21 practical: investigate reactions betwixt weakened hydrochloric and sulfuric acids and metals (e.g. magnesium, zinc and iron)
    • (e) Extraction and uses of metals
      • 2:22 (Triple solitary) make out that most metals are extracted from ores found in the Earth's crust and that unreactive metals are often found as the uncombined element
      • 2:23 (Triple only) excuse how the method of extraction of a metal is coreferent its position in the reactivity serial, illustrated by carbon extraction for cast-iron and electrolysis for aluminium
      • 2:24 (Triple entirely) be able to comment along a metal extraction process, given appropriate selective information
      • 2:25 (Triple only) explain the uses of atomic number 13, copper, iron and sword in terms of their properties the types of sword will be limited to low-carbon (mild), high-carbon and unstained
      • 2:26 (Triple only) know that an alloy is a assortment of a metal and one or more elements, usually other metals OR carbon copy
      • 2:27 (Three-bagger only) excuse why alloys are harder than pure metals
    • (f) Acids, alkalis and titrations
      • 2:28 describe the use of litmus, phenolphthalein and methyl orange to severalize between acidic and alkaline solutions
      • 2:29 understand how to use the pH, from 0–14, can cost wont to class solutions as strongly acidic (0–3), weak acidic (4–6), neutral (7), weakly alkaline (8–10) and strongly alcalescent (11–14)
      • 2:30 describe the use of Universal Indicator to measure the estimate pH prise of an aqueous solution
      • 2:31 know that acids in aqueous solution are a source of H ions and alkalis in a aqueous solution are a root of hydroxide ions
      • 2:32 know that bases tooshie neutralise acids
      • 2:33 (Triple only) line how to carry out an acid-alkali titration
    • (g) Acids, bases and salt preparations
      • 2:34 do it the general rules for predicting the solubility of ionic compounds in water: common sodium, potassium and ammonium ion compounds are soluble, all nitrates are dissoluble, public chlorides are soluble, leave out those of silver and guide(Deuce), common sulfates are soluble, except for those of Ba, calcium and moderate(II), common carbonates are insoluble, except for those of Na, potassium and ammonium, public hydroxides are insoluble except for those of Na, K and calcium (calcium hydrated oxide is slightly soluble)
      • 2:35 sympathise acids and bases in terms of proton reassign
      • 2:36 understand that an acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor
      • 2:37 describe the reactions of hydrochloric vitriolic, sulfuric acid and nitrogen acid with metals, bases and metal carbonates (excluding the reactions between nitric acid and metals) to form salts
      • 2:38 know that metallic oxides, tinny hydroxides and ammonia can act as bases, and that alkalis are bases that are soluble in water
      • 2:39 describe an experiment to prepare a pure, dry sample of a resolvable salt, protrusive from an insoluble reactant
      • 2:40 (Ternary only) delineate an try out to prepare a pure, dry sample of a soluble salt, starting from an acid and alkali
      • 2:41 (Triple only) describe an experiment to prepare a refined, dry try of an water-insoluble salt, starting from ii soluble reactants
      • 2:42 practical: make a sample of axenic, dry hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals starting from copper(II) oxide
      • 2:43 (Triple only) practical: prepare a sample of pure, parched lead(Deuce) sulfate
    • (h) Stuff tests
      • 2:44a describe tests for these gases: hydrogen, carbon dioxide
      • 2:44 describe tests for these gases: atomic number 1, oxygen, carbon copy dioxide, ammonia, chlorine
      • 2:45 describe how to accomplish a flame test
      • 2:46 know the colours cowl-shaped in flame tests for these cations: Cardinal⁺ is cherry, Sodium⁺ is yellow, K⁺ is lilac, Ca²⁺ is orangish-cherry-red, Cu²⁺ is blue-green
      • 2:47 describe tests for these cations: NH₄⁺ using sodium hydroxide solution and identifying the gas evolved, Cu²⁺, Atomic number 26²⁺ and Fe³⁺ using sodium hydroxide solution
      • 2:48 describe tests for these anions: Cl⁻, Br⁻ and I⁻ using acidified articulate nitrate solution, SO₄²⁻ using acidified Ba chloride solution, CO₃²⁻ victimisation hydrochloric superman and identifying the gas evolved
      • 2:49 describe a test for the presence of H2O using anhydrous pig(II) sulphate
      • 2:50 describe a physical examine to show whether a sample distribution of water is pure
  • 3 Somatogenetic chemistry
    • (a) Energetics
      • 3:01 know that chemical reactions in which heat energy is given outgoing are delineated As exothermal, and those in which heat push is taken in are described arsenic endothermic
      • 3:02 describe elementary calorimetry experiments for reactions such as burning, displacement, dissolving and neutralization reaction
      • 3:03 calculate the heat modification from a measured temperature variety using the expression Q = mcΔT
      • 3:04 calculate the molar enthalpy change (ΔH) from the heat energy alteration, Q
      • 3:05 (Triple only) take up and explain get-up-and-go level diagrams to represent exothermic and endothermic reactions
      • 3:06 (Triple only) live that bond-breaking is an endothermic process and that bond-making is an exothermic process
      • 3:07 (Triple only) enjoyment shackle energies to calculate the enthalpy change during a chemical substance reaction
      • 3:08 practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying any of the following types of change: salts dissolving in water, counteraction reactions, displacement reactions and combustion reactions
    • (b) Rates of reaction
      • 3:09 describe experiments to investigate the effects of changes in surface area of a solid, concentration of a solution, temperature and the use of a accelerator on the rate of a reaction
      • 3:10 describe the effects of changes in surface area of a square, concentration of a solution, pressure of a gas, temperature and the use of a catalyst happening the rate of a reaction
      • 3:11 excuse the effects of changes in surface expanse of a solid, concentration of a resolution, pressure of a gas and temperature on the pace of a reaction in terms of particle collision theory
      • 3:12 roll in the hay that a accelerator is a substance that increases the charge per unit of a reaction, but is chemically unchanged at the end of the response
      • 3:13 acknowledge that a accelerator works by providing an alternative pathway with let down activating energy
      • 3:14 (Triple only) draw and explain reaction profile diagrams showing ΔH and activation energy
      • 3:15 practical: investigate the effect of changing the area of marble chips and of changing the assiduousness of hydrochloric caustic on the rate of reaction between marble chips and dilute hydrochloric acid
      • 3:16 practical: investigate the effect of different solids connected the catalytic decomposition of hydrogen hydrogen peroxide solution
    • (c) Changeful reactions and equilibria
      • 3:17 know that some reactions are reversible and this is indicated by the symbol ⇌ in equations
      • 3:18 account reversible reactions much as the dehydration of hydrous copper(2) sulfate and the effect of heat along ammonium ion chloride
      • 3:19 (Triple only) know that a reversible reaction can arrive at dynamic sense of equilibrium in a sealed container
      • 3:20 (Triad only) know that the characteristics of a reaction at dynamic labyrinthine sense are: the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate, and the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant
      • 3:21 (Triple only) sympathize why a catalyst does not affect the position of sense of equilibrium in a revokable reaction
      • 3:22 (Triple alone) predict, with reasons, the effect of dynamical either pressure or temperature along the position of equilibrium in a reversible chemical reaction (references to Le Chatelier's principle are not required)
  • 4 Organic chemistry
    • (a) Introduction
      • 4:01 know that a hydrocarbon is a compound of hydrogen and carbon paper just
      • 4:02 infer how to represent organic molecules victimization empirical formulae, molecular formulae, general formulae, geomorphological formulae and displayed formulae
      • 4:03a cognise what is meant by the term isomerism
      • 4:03 know what is meant past the terms homologous series, functional group and isomerism
      • 4:04 understand how to mention compounds relevant to this specification victimization the rules of International Labor union of Gross and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) nomenclature. Students will personify supposed to name compounds containing up to six carbon atoms
      • 4:05 understand how to write the possible structural and displayed formulae of an organic molecule minded its molecular formula
      • 4:06 understand how to classify reactions of organic compounds as substitution, addition and combustion. Knowledge of reaction mechanisms is not obligatory
    • (b) Crude oil
      • 4:07 lie with that unskilled oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons
      • 4:08 describe how the industrial march of halfway distillation separates crude oil into fractions
      • 4:09 know the names and uses of the main fractions obtained from crude: refinery gases, gasoline, kerosine, diesel engine, fuel oil and bitumen
      • 4:10 know the trend in colour, boiling point and viscosity of the main fractions
      • 4:11 do it that a fuel is a substance that, when burned, releases heat energy
      • 4:12 know the possible products of complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons with oxygen in the air
      • 4:13 understand why carbon monoxide is poisonous, in terms of its effect happening the capacity of rakehell to transport oxygen references to haemoglobin are not required
      • 4:14 know that, in car engines, the temperature reached is high enough to allow N and oxygen from send to respond, forming oxides of nitrogen
      • 4:15 explain how the combustion of some impurities in hydrocarbon fuels results in the shaping of sulphur dioxide
      • 4:16 realize how sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen oxides contribute to acid rain
      • 4:17 describe how long-handled-chain alkanes are converted to alkenes and shorter-chain alkanes by catalytic cracking (victimisation silica OR alumina as the catalyst and a temperature in the range of 600–700⁰C)
      • 4:18 excuse why cracking is necessary, in terms of the balance between issue and need for distinct fractions
    • (c) Alkanes
      • 4:19 know the oecumenical recipe for alkanes
      • 4:20 explicate wherefore alkanes are classified as saturated hydrocarbons
      • 4:21 understand how to draw the structural and displayed formulae for alkanes with up to five carbon atoms in the molecule, and to name the unbranched-concatenation isomers
      • 4:22 describe the reactions of alkanes with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet radiation, noncomprehensive to mono-substitution knowledge of reaction mechanisms is not needed
    • (d) Alkenes
      • 4:23 know that alkenes contain the functional group >C=C<
      • 4:24 know the pandemic formula for alkenes
      • 4:25 explain why alkenes are classified as monounsaturated hydrocarbons
      • 4:26 understand how to draw the geomorphologic and displayed formulae for alkenes with up to four carbon atoms in the speck, and name the unbranched-mountain chain isomers. Knowledge of cis/trans OR E/Z notation is not required
      • 4:27 account the reactions of alkenes with Br, to produce dibromoalkanes
      • 4:28 key how bromine water keister make up used to distinguish between an alkane and an olefin
    • (e) Alcohols
      • 4:29 (Threefold only) have it off that alcohols contain the functional group −OH
      • 4:30 (Triple only) understand how to draw functional and displayed formulae for methanol, ethanol, propanol (propan-1-ol entirely) and butanol (butan-1-ol only), and name each cleft, the names propanol and butanol are acceptable
      • 4:31 (Triple only) do it that ethanol can glucinium oxidised aside: burning in air or oxygen (fill out burning), reaction with oxygen in the air to form acetic acid (microbial oxidation), heating with K dichromate(VI) in reduce sulfuric acid to form ethanoic acid
      • 4:32 (Triple only) know that ethyl alcohol can be manufactured by: 1) reacting ethene with steamer in the presence of a phosphoric acid catalyst at a temperature of about 300⁰C and a pressure of almost 60–70atm; and 2) the fermentation of glucose, in the absence of air, at an optimum temperature of about 30⁰C and using the enzymes in yeast
      • 4:33 (Multiple only) understand the reasons for fermentation, in the absence of air, and at an optimum temperature
    • (f) Carboxylic acids
      • 4:34 (Triple only) know that carboxylic acids contain the functional group -COOH
      • 4:35 (Threefold only) understand how to haul structural and displayed formulae for branchless- chain carboxylic acids with capable four carbon paper atoms in the particle, and figure each compound
      • 4:36 (Triple only) describe the reactions of aqueous solutions of group acids with metals and argentiferous carbonates
      • 4:37 (Triple only) get it on that acetum is an liquid solution containing ethanoic pane
    • (g) Esters
      • 4:38 (Triple exclusive) know that esters control the utilitarian radical -COO-
      • 4:39 (Triple only) lie with that ethyl group ethanoate is the ester produced when ethanol and ethanoic acid react in the front of an acidic catalyst
      • 4:40 (Triple only) understand how to indite the structural and displayed formulae of ethyl group ethanoate
      • 4:41 (Triple only) understand how to write the structural and displayed formulae of an ester, conferred the describ or formula of the alcohol and radical caustic from which information technology is formed and the other way around
      • 4:42 (Triple only) get laid that esters are volatile compounds with distinctive smells and are misused as food flavourings and in perfumes
      • 4:43 (Triple lone) pragmatic: prepare a sample of an ester so much As ethyl group acetate
    • (h) Synthetic polymers
      • 4:44 jazz that an addition polymer is formed by joining up many small molecules titled monomers
      • 4:45 infer how to draw the repeat unit of an addition polymer, including poly(ethylene), poly(propylene), poly(chloroethene) and (poly)tetrafluroethene
      • 4:46 understand how to deduct the structure of a monomer from the repeat building block of an addition polymer and vice versa
      • 4:47 explain problems in the disposal of addition polymers, including: their inertness and inability to biodegrade, the output of toxic gases when they are burned
      • 4:48 (Triple only) know that condensation polymerisation, in which a dicarboxylic acid reacts with a diol, produces a polyester and water
      • 4:49 (Triple alone) Understand how to write the makeup and displayed convention of a polyester, showing the repeat social unit, given the formulae of the monomers from which it is formed, including the reaction of ethanedioic acid and ethanediol:
      • 4:50 (Triple entirely) know that some polyesters, titled biopolyesters, are biodegradable
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3:15 practical: inquire the effect of changing the area of marble chips and of dynamical the concentration of hydrochloric acid on the rate of reaction between marble chips and dilute chlorohydric acid

3:15 practical: investigate the effect of dynamical the opencast surface area of marble chips and of changing the concentration of chlorohydric acid on the rate of reaction betwixt marble chips and dilute chlorohydric acid

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describe the similarities and differences between mixtures and solutions

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